公益林(Public Welfare Forest)
Public Welfare Forest
公益林是指為了維護和改善社會環境，以保持生態平衡、保護物種的多樣性等作為目的，向社會和公眾提供公益性的、社會性的產品和服務的森林、林地。
Public good forest refers to forests and forest lands where the public provides public goods and services of a public nature and social nature to society and
根據公益林的主要功能劃分，可以分為兩個大類：防護林和特種用途林。前者根據森林的功能又分為：水土保持林、農用牧場防護林、防風固沙林、護路護岸林等幾個方面；後者根據用途又可以分為：國防林、實驗林、種子林等。
According to the main functions of the public forest, it can be divided into two major categories . The former can be divided into two main types: 國防林包括國防設施林、國界線保護林、軍事場所禁區林等；實驗林包括：教學實習林、科研實驗林等；種子林包括：種子園、母樹林、種子測定林等。
National forest defence includes national defensive Schrin, national lines of protection of forests, restricted areas at military sites, and so on; experimental forests include: instruction in intern forests, scientific experimental forests, etc.; and seed forests include seed gardens, mother forests, seeding forests, etc. 按照國家的有關要求，公益林劃分為重點公益林、省級公益林、地方級公益林三種形式。在公益林中又劃分為禁伐區(Ⅰ級)、限伐區(Ⅱ級)、商品林區(Ⅲ級)，一個地方的森林都基本上區劃成了Ⅰ、Ⅱ級生態公益林範圍，區劃的商品林面積很少，只占整個地方林業用地面的20％左右。
In accordance with national requirements, public interest forests are classified into three forms: public good forests, provincial public good forests, and local public good forests. In public interest forests, they are classified as closed areas (I), restricted areas (II) and commodity forest areas (III). Forests in one area are largely classified as I and II public good forests, with a small stock of commodities, accounting for about 20 per cent of the total land area of the local forest industry. 1．涵養水源
1. Inclusive water 有研究表明，每公頃森林有500 m3涵養水源能力，樹木根冠能夠截流10％～23％的雨水，林下的樹枝和落葉層能截流20％～80％的雨水，在一定條件下還能減少78．4％的地表徑流，使土壤蓄水量增加20％。
Studies have shown that each common forest has a capacity of 500 m3 containing water resources, with tree root crowns able to cut 10-23 per cent of rainwater, trees and leaves under forests able to cut 20 to 80 per cent of rainwater, reducing surface currents by 78.4 per cent under certain conditions and increasing soil water storage by 20 per cent. 2．調節氣候、製造氧氣
2. Moderate and produce oxygen 由於植物的蒸騰作用和物理蒸發，能夠使公益林涵養的一些水份返回大氣，然後形成雲霧，增加降雨數量和次數，緩解旱情，減少乾旱危害，給人類生存和植物生長提供更加適宜的環境；有研究表明，在公益林的生長時期，每公頃公益林每天可釋放8430t左右的氧氣，吸收1548t左右的二氧化碳，給人類提供更多的氧氣。
As a result of the evaporation and physical evaporation of plants, some of the water contained in public interest forests can return to the atmosphere and then form clouds, increasing rainfall and 水土流失
3. Wind protection against /b> 公益林所覆蓋的土地，很少被大風或雨水腐蝕。有研究表明，森林可使風速減少20％～25％。公益林還可以保護周邊的農田、鄉村、牧場和城鎮不被大雨侵害，可以保護河流和水庫不淤積。
There are studies that suggest that forests can reduce wind speed by 20-25%. They can also protect the surrounding fields, villages, pastures, and towns from heavy rains and rivers and reservoirs. 4．吸收有害氣體、改善生態環境
4. Absorption of harmful gases and improvement of the living environment 公益林可以吸附空氣中的灰塵，凈化空氣，還可以調節空氣的濕度和溫度。能夠吸收大部分的陽光，並只能反射出少量的陽光，因此在公益林區域內氣溫是冬暖夏涼。
Public interest forests can absorb dust from the air, clean the air, and adjust the humidity and temperature of the air. They can absorb most of the sunlight and reflect only a small amount of it, so the temperature in the public interest forest is warm and cool. 5．功能保健
5. Functional health 公益林生長的野生植物。有很多具有藥用價值，其顏色和香味能夠影響和刺激人類大腦神經，大腦神經在其刺激或影響下，對一些疾病的預防和治療有一定的作用。
There are many wild plants that grow in the public good. They have pharmaceutical value, and their colour and fragrance can influence and stimulate human brain neuroses, which, with their stimulation or influence, have a role in the prevention and treatment of some diseases. 6．維持生態平衡和乍物多樣性
6. Maintenance of a living balance and magnificence 公益林既是野生動植物繁衍和生息的重要場所，也是野生動植物中要的保護基地，在公益林內，維持了生態的平衡，也保持了生物的典型性和多樣性。
Public forest is both an important site for the breeding and production of wild plants, as well as a protection base for wild plants, where the balance of life is maintained, and where the typical and multi-variate nature of life is maintained. 1．公益林的經濟效益
1. Economic benefits of public forest 公益林的經濟效益是指在人類對森林生態系統進行經營活動時所取得的，已納入現行貨幣計量體系，可在市場上交換而獲利的一切收益，也稱直接效益。經濟效益也稱直接效益，包括以公益林資源為原料的一切產品生產收入，以贏利為目的利用公益林非原料功能的收益，如森林旅游業中相關的收益。經濟效益是綜合效益中最活躍、與人類社會最直接相關的部分，也是已經被人類真正重視，在開發利用中已表現為經濟形式的那部分效益。
2．發展公益林的經濟效益的意義
2. Meaning of economic efficiency in the development of public forest (1)可以構成複雜的生物鏈，促進生態系統的協調和穩定。公益林天然的環境和有效的空間發展可以改變公益林比較單一的生物生存結構，有效的構築複雜的、新的生物鏈，形成穩定的生態系統。
(1) A complex biological chain can be constructed to promote the harmony and stability of the ecosystem. The natural environment of the public forest and the efficient development of space can change the more homogeneous living structure of the public forest, creating complex, new biological chains and creating stable ecosystems. (2)提高了土地的利用率，為公益林的管理經營者提供了可觀的收入。隨著公益林保護政策的健全，在保護好公益林生態效益的基礎上，大力發展林下經濟，既可以增加土地的利用率，又可以促進公益林的健康、持續的發展，達到雙贏的局面，這無疑會增強管理者的責任感和公益心。
(2) Land utilization has been increased, providing significant revenue to managers of public interest forests. As a result of sound public interest forest conservation policies, boosts land utilization and contributes to the healthy, sustainable development of public interest forests, leading to a win-win situation that will undoubtedly increase the sense of responsibility and public goods of managers. (3)增加了公益林附屬副產品的產量，滿足了社會的需求。在發展公益林生態環境的基礎上，合理的利用林間的資源優勢，加大了國土的利用率，為社會提供更多的林間副產品，極大的滿足了社會的需求。
(c) Increasing the production of public forest-affiliated by-products, which meet the needs of society. On the basis of the development of the forest’s living environment, the rational use of forest resources has led to an increase in land use and the provision of more forest by-products to society, meeting the needs of society. 公益林以保護、控制、穩定、改善生態環境為主要經營目的。由於經營目的的特殊性,決定了公益林資源經營與其他林種的差異,這些特點可歸納為:
Public interest forests are primarily operated for the purpose of protecting, , stabilizing and improving the living environment. Due to the special nature of the operation, differs between public good forest resources and other forest species: 1.森林種類的多樣性
Multiplicity of forest species . 由於生態環境的多樣性,各種環境對森林的防護要求各不相同,就形成了各式各樣的公益林。各類公益林要求的經營樹種、經營方式不同,防護效能的測算方法與指標也不一樣,它們的使用價值各異。在公益林資產的評估中必須對各類公益林分別進行界定,並分別各林分的具體情況進行測算與評估。
Various types of public interest forests are formed as a result of the diversity of environmental requirements for forest protection as a result of the diverse nature of the living environment. Different types of public interest forests are operated in
2.產品效益的公益性
2. Public good of product benefits
公益林是以發揮其生態防護效能為主要目的,並以公益效能作為產品形式。這種產品缺乏商品屬性,屬於公益性質的產品,它的效益自動外溢,享用者無須通過經營就可享用它位的效益,以致經營者通常很難從享用的單位或個人處獲得使用其公益產品的經濟補償,只能從公益林的副產品木材或者其他林產品中取得經濟效益,其經濟收入經常無法補償其經營成本的支出,處於虧損狀態。
The public interest forest, which is primarily aimed at the development of its developmental preventive effectiveness, is in the form of a public benefit product. This lacks commodity attributes, is self-influenced by products of public good, and the beneficiaries have no access to 3.生產成本的社會性
3. Sociality of production costs 公益林經營的生產成本經常由圖家或社會給予部分資助。在生態環境較惡劣的地方,如沙漠邊緣的防風固沙林,海灘上的海岸公益林,其經營成本基本上由國家或社會全部承擔。
The cost of producing a public forest is often partly funded by graphics or society. Where the living environment is worse, such as wind-resistant sarin on the edges of the desert, coastal public forest on the beach is largely fully borne by the state or society. 4.經營的強制性
4. Coerciveness of running 國家對公益林經營的特點、範圍、方式都以法規的形式明確地加以規定。將以規定地段的森林強制劃分為公益林,強制這些森林的所有者按公益林經營的方式進行經營。
The state clearly regulates the characteristics, scope, and modalities of public forest operations in the form of a law. The forest is classified as a public good in a defined area, and the owners of these forests are obliged to operate in the manner in which they operate. 5.森林生物群落的脆弱性
5. Vulnerability of forest biological communities 公益林資源相當一部分分佈在生態環境較為惡劣的地區。在這樣惡劣的生態環境中,森林的植物群藩極為脆弱,森林的生態系統極不穩定。
A significant proportion of public forest resources are located in areas where the living environment is worse. In such a bad environment, forest flora is extremely fragile and forest ecosystems are extremely unstable. 6.成熟確定的複雜性
6. Complexity of maturity 公益林成熟是經營公益林中確定其更新採伐時間的極重要的經濟技術指標,防護成熟齡是指林木的防護效能開始下降的年齡。但要測公益林效能的變化過程及其開始下降的年齡來確定公益林成熟齡則十分困難,加上公益林的種類多,效益計量各不相同,其測定方法各異這又增加了防護成熟確定的複雜性。
The maturity of a public good forest is the most important economic and technical indicator in a public good forest to determine the timing of its renewal, and the age at which the protective maturity of a forest begins to decline. It is difficult to measure the evolution of the performance of a public good and the age at which it begins to decline in order to determine the maturity of a public good forest, and the multiplicity of public good forests and the variety of efficiency measures, which add to the complexity of establishing a defence maturity. 重點生態公益林經營的方針，首先最大限度地發揮森林的生態效益和社會效益，在保證森林生態系統穩定的情況下，應用生態學原理實施干預和培育，從而達到優化森林生態系統的目的。在確保重點公益林森林種群進化的情況下，增加物種多樣性和遺傳多樣性，逐步優化生態系統，在保證森林群落向頂級演替的前提下，增強森林生態系統的垂直結構，增加生態層，實行生態位分異，培育去杉、冷杉、紅松針闊混交林森林生態系統，實現高生物量，生態效益連續，抗病蟲性強，綜合效益高的培育目標。
Remarking the paradigms for the operation of bio-forests, starting with maximizing the benefits of forest biomass and , while ensuring the stability of the forest ecosystems, applying the bio-recording principles and nurturing from to achieve the objectives of an improved forest ecosystem. 為了更好地保護好森林資源，又能達到充分合理地培育和利用森林資源，以地類、立地質量等級、郁閉度、保護等級、質量評價等因素來進行分類。
In order to better protect , forest resources can also be cultivated and used in a fully rational way to classify them by, inter alia, , protection level, quality assessment, etc. 封禁保護型：Ⅰ級公益林都區劃在生態比較脆弱、立地條件比較差、大江大河源頭及第一層山脊以內、濕地及水庫周圍、石漠化及水土流失嚴重和需要重點保護的地方。
Protected type: Level I public interest forest area is more vulnerable in living condition, site condition is less favourable, the sources of the Great River and the ridges of the 1st Platoon, the wetlands and the surroundings of the reservoirs, rock desertification and soil erosion are severe and in need of heavy protection. 封育補植型：Ⅱ、Ⅲ級公益中，立地條件好的疏林地、灌木林地。
(b) Seal supplementation type: II, Level III public goods, plotted shrubland, . 撫育間伐型：Ⅱ、Ⅲ級公益中，郁閉度在0．8以上，林木分化明顯。植被受光困難。
(b) Plumbing: II and III public goods with a depression of more than 0.8, with clear wood differentiation. 更新擇伐型：Ⅱ級公益中，郁閉度在O．7以上，年齡老化、生態功能衰退。
Updates: Class II public goods with a depression of more than O.7 and old age and a decline in biofunctionality. 更新改造型：Ⅱ、Ⅲ級公益中，立地條件好的殘次低效灌叢。
Upgraded: II/III Public good with good ground-based sub-inefficient bushes. 為了更好地保護好森林資源，又能合理充分的培育和剝用資源，既達到保護、培育與利用三贏，又促進林業經濟的發展，對不同的類型採用不同的經營方式。
In order to better protect forest resources, and to grow and exploit them reasonably adequately, it is possible to protect, nurture and exploit the triple win, and to promote the development of the forest economy, using different modes of operation for different types of activities. 封禁保護型的經營：禁止一切不利於林分生長的人畜活動，嚴格執行封山育林十不准制度，在封禁區恩邊設立永久性的宣傳碑牌和利用廣播、電視等媒體大力宣傳森林保護的重要性。同時聘用專職護林員進行巡山管護。
Ban Protected Administration: prohibits all human and animal activities that are detrimental to the growth of forests, strictly enforces the 10 disencumbrances, creates permanent posters on the side of the exclusion zone and promotes the importance of forest protection through the use of radio, television, etc. 封育補植型的經營：在疏林地、灌木林地的空地中。在按照2米×2米的株行距整地栽植一些與原樹種不同的速生鄉土樹種，增加林分組成，以便形成復層混交林分，而後封山育林，加大管護力度，逐步提高林分質量，增強林分的防護效果和抗病能力。
(b) Encapsulation of shrubland and shrubland: in open land. 撫育間伐型的經營：對林木分化明顯或植被受光困難的林分，按照生態公益林撫育間伐標準，對其進行撫育間伐，伐除一些霸王樹、生長緩慢、遭受自然災害的林木，讓保留木和受光困難的植被正常生長。天然林撫育間伐後林分的郁閉必須在0．6以上。人工近熟林撫育間伐後郁閉度必須保留在O．5以上。撫育間伐後絕不能形成“天窗”，撫育聞伐後栽植一些與原生樹種不同的良種壯苗大苗速生鄉土樹種，通過施肥和加強撫育管理，以改快速成林來變林分組成。以便增加林分的防護效果和防護功能。
(b) The The harvest of wood under clear or difficult forest cover, the
更新擇伐型的經營：對樹齡老化、生態功能衰退的林分。採用沿等高線方向一致的小面積團狀擇伐，逐次進行改造，每次擇伐的強度不能過大，不能超過30％。擇伐面積不能超林分小班面積的20％，且擇伐地塊之間必須保留15—20米的保留帶。樹苗採用經濟價值高、生長快、適應能力強、良種壯苗的大苗鄉土樹種進行栽植，對新栽植的樹苗每年都要按照幼林撫育措施進行集約管理，嚴禁營造純林和全墾整地。撫育採用適度擴穴壅蔸除草施肥、割除影響苗木生長藤草的方式，連續撫育5年。
Renewal of logging operations: forest fractions for age ageing and decline in biogenetic functions. Use small-scale plots that are consistent along high-line lines, adapted to be less than 30% strong at one time and less than 30% above 30% at a time. It must not exceed 20% of the small-scale stock, and must be preserved 15-20 metres between the plots. The seedlings are planted using large seedlings of high economic value, high-growth, high-resilient and fertile, and the newly planted seedlings are subject to annual contract management in accordance with child-breeding measures, with a strict ban on the construction of pure forests and whole areas.
更新改造型的經營：沿等高線34米為隔離帶，帶寬60～100釐米為宜，將帶中無培育前途的灌叢全部伐除，沿等高線堆放，伐樁不超過5釐米。在帶中整地植苗(以速生樹種為宜)，使目的樹種達到110株，畝以上，充分發揮林地潛力，對其進行集約經營管理，達到生態和經濟利益雙贏。
(b)
1．採用栽針保闊技術，在天然林中引進適宜林分生長的針葉樹，形成針闊混交林，這種技術的實施，縮短了演替進程，加快了天然林的恢復速度，效果良好。
The introduction of needle protection techniques in has led to the formation of synthesic forest mixes, which have resulted in a shorter replacement process and has accelerated the recovery of natural forests with good results.
2．在天然次生林中靠天然更新恢復森林的主要樹種有水曲柳、柞樹、械樹、椴樹等及先鋒樹種楊樹、白樺，經過撫育與原有天然林形成混交林，此外在林緣處，由於受林分的庇護，生態環境良好，主要依靠風力傳播種子的樹種進行天然更新。
At , which consists of hydrates, thugs, thugs, thugs, thugs, thugs, etc., and , and in the forest context, which is protected by forest species, the environment is good and relies mainly on the natural renewal of trees transmitted by natural means.
3．對天然更新形成的幼苗、幼樹，不僅通過自然環境的選擇，而且要經過2～3個種子年才能完成，是個漫長的過程，我們通過人工促進能夠縮短更新周期，此外，採取了幼齡定植，中齡間伐等系列管理措施。
3. Naturally updated seedlings and trees, not only through natural environment choices, but also through two to three child years, are a long process through which we can shorten the renewal cycle through manual facilitation, in addition to a series of management measures such as age-setting and mid-age logging.
4．在宜林荒山，退耕地及灌叢地開拓效應帶，在帶上造林，並引進天然闊葉樹，形成人工天然混交林，這種方式是擴大邊緣界面，提高光能利用率，促進樹木生長的有效措施。
4. In the Irene desert mountains, the retreating cropland and the opening of the bushes have been planted and brought into natural broad leaves trees to form artificially mixed forests, in a way that expands the border interface, increases the use of light energy and promotes effective measures for tree growth.
5．對落葉松純林，採取衛生伐，透光伐，在林冠下栽植耐蔭樹種，對成熟的落葉松純林也可採取小面積皆伐的方式，應用中度干擾理論，伐後進行帶狀整地，栽植闊葉樹種。
5. Take , , plant indelible trees under forest crowns, take a small-face-crushing approach to mature desolation, apply medium-disturbation theory to the desolation of mature desolation pine, and then conduct a full-scale logging process to plant leaves.
公益林資產即以公益林資源為物質內涵的財產。不是所有的資源都是資源性資產,作為資產的資源必須具備一定的條件。
Not all are resources must have certain provisions in place.
根據1992年2月在內羅畢召開的國際發展機構委員會(CLDIE),環境和自然資源核算研討會通過的結論和建議中對資產作出的定義：凡能滿足以下四個條件之一的即為重要資產。
According to the conclusions and recommendations adopted by the Commission of International Development Institutions (CLDIE), convened in Nairobi in February 1992, is defined as an important asset that meets one of the following four conditions.
1.資產是重要的生產財富和對產生收入活動的投入,而不僅是消費的物品；
1. Property is an important asset and an investment in income-generating activities, not just a consumer;
2.資產是給養,直接就業或收入機會的重要來源；
2. Property is an important source of sustenance, direct employment or income opportunities;
3.其它產業根據來自該資產的投資或服務；
Other industries are based on investment from the asset or ;
4.該資產的貶值會導致對人類安全、健康和非物質福利的不可接受的影響。
4. The valuing of the asset can lead to unacceptable effects on human safety, health and non-material well-being.
因此,較為合適的資源性資產的概念應是在人們現有的認識和現實的科技水平下,其開發利用能帶來一定經濟價值的資源。再根據資產的一般屬性,可以作為資產的公益林也必須同時具備其它資產所應具備的三個條件:
Thus, the concept of a more appropriate resource should be based on an existing level of awareness and real-life technology that can generate resources of economic value. And, depending on the ordinary nature of the asset, the public good that can be used as an asset must also be equipped with three conditions for other assets at the same time:
(一)具有使用價值,經營者有經濟效益,可作為經營對象的公益林；
(i) Use value of , the operator has economic benefits and can serve as a public good for each other;
(二)可用貨幣進行度量,可作為商品進行交換的公益林；
(ii) A public good forest in which currency can be measured and which can be exchanged as a commodity;
(三)極屬明確,為某一經濟法律關係主體所占有,並實施有效控制的公益林。
(iii) It is very clear that the economic and legal relations body is owned and effectively controlled.
據此現實公益林僅有一部分可界定為森林資產,而相當一部分仍處於資源狀態,只能按資源進行管理。
According to this, only one part of the real public good forest can be defined as a forest asset, while a significant part remains in the resource state and can only be managed based on resource.
公益林的資產由林地資產、林木資源資產和防護效益所獲得的補償貨幣能力三者構成。
The public interest in the forest is based on three factors: the value of the forest, the forest resources and the value of the protection, and the value of the money.
(一)林地資產
(i) Forest land
公益林的林地資產是指承載著具有資產性公益林林木的土地。這類土地的位置通常較為特殊,如河流的兩岸、水庫的周圍、道路的兩側、交通方便的平坦的海灘等等。它們按林業的有關法規規定必須作為公益林的林木使用,其資產價格的構成同樣含有絕對地租與極差地租與極差地租,但這些地租的測算與其上的承載物質對應的公益林的經營方式息息相關。
Forest land <(a) href="https://wiki.mbalib.com/zh-tw/%E5.5%9C%9F%E5%E5%C0"title="land" is usually a special location, such as the banks of rivers, the surroundings of reservoirs, the sides of roads, flat and accessible beaches, etc. The rules of law of must be used as a public good forest, and their property sizes must be in the same manner as those of (二)林木資源資產
(ii) Forest resource 公益林的林木資源資產主要是指公益林中具有資產屬性的林木蓄積量。
The resource base of the forest in the public good refers mainly to the stock of wood in the public good that has property in the forest. (三)防護效益所能獲得的貸幣補償能力
(iii) The ability to make up for the benefits of defence 公益林資產的主要產品防護效益通常很難獲得合理的社會補償，但隨著社會對環境保護的重視,對防護效益的補償已從無到有,也必將從不合理到逐漸合理。
While it is often difficult to obtain reasonable social compensation for the protection of the main products of public goods, with society's emphasis on environmental protection, compensation for the protection benefits has never been available and will never be justified. 根據公益林資產的特點及其經營的特點，現行的一些森林資產價格評估的方法受到一定的限制。
Some of the current methods of assessing forest prices are limited, depending on the characteristics of public goods and their operation. (一)收益現值法
根據公益林資產性質,它必須要要有經濟效益,而且其林地和林木兩資產不可分割,需進行綜合性的評估,這決定了收益現值是公益林資產砰估中較為適宜的方法。
Depending on the nature of the public good forest asset, it must have economic benefits, and its forest land and wood assets are inseparable and subject to a congenial assessment, which determines that is a more appropriate method for estimating public good forest property. 收益現值法即將公益林的無窮多個生產周期的木材生產的純收入,防護效益的補償費每年支出的管理費用全部現為現值。其計算公式為:
The pay-as-you-go method is to present the net income of wood production in the infinite number of production cycles of public interest forests, and the annual expenditure of management fee . The formula is: E1=A1/[(1+P)t-1-1]-(B-V)/P
式中：E1—公益林資產的收益現值(含林地、森林及其他收益)；A1—擇伐或漸伐的木材生產純收入(已扣除木材生產成本,銷售成本,成本的利潤稅、金、費)；V—公益林資產年度的管理和保護費用；B—社會或國家已確定的合理的年度防護效益的補償費用；P—年利率：t—擇伐周期或輪伐期。
In formulas: E1 - Current revenue from wood production (including ); A1 - net revenue from wood production from felling or felling (excluding wood production costs sales cost , - tax, fee >$8%E6%E-private interest rate = annual interest rate of 本公式是假設該公益林資產價格評估基準日後t年(一個生產周期)方可擇伐或漸伐的。如果可進行採伐的時間不是一個完整的周期(t年),則公式改為:
This formula assumes that /a href=https://wiki.mbalib.com/zh-tw/%E6%B8%E9%90%BC%90"title="Drawing". If the time available for logging is not a full cycle (t), the formula is changed to: E1=A1(1+P)t-k/[(1+P)t-1-1]-(VB)/P
式中：k—評估基準日至採伐的時間間隔。
: k- to logging. 如該公益林的面積較大，擇伐周期為t,每年都可擇伐總面積的1/t,每年的純收入為At,則計算公式可簡化為:
If the public forest is larger in size and has a t-cycle, the sum of 1/t per year can be cut, the net annual income is at At, and the calculation formula can be simplified as follows: E0=(A1-V+B)/P
以上各式均以天然更新為前提,沒有考慮造林更新、撫育間伐的費用及收入。如考慮這些開支及收入,則上述各式中的R值在漸伐作業中為:
All of the above are premised on natural renewal, without taking into account the cost of afforestation, birth control and . For these and income, the value of R in the above-mentioned categories is: A1=Y1+YV(1+P)U-V/Yr[(1+P)u-a+Da(1+P)U-a+Db(1+P)U-b+…-C
式中:Da、Db—第a年、第b年的間伐收入；C—造林費用；u—間伐作業的更新期限；Yt—後伐純收入；Yv—預備伐純收入；Yr—下種伐純收入；v—預備伐的年齡；r—下種伐的年齡。
Model: Da, Db — Inter-yearly cutting revenue in years a and b; C-afforestation fees; u-renewal period in years of deforestation; Yt — Post-exploitation pure income; Yv — preparatory pure income; Yr — next pure income; v — age of pre-harvest; r — age of sub-exploitation. 在上式中,因第一期造林費用早已投入,以林木形式存在；第二期以後的造林費用合計為C/(1+P)t-1上式在凈現值公式中為R/(1+P)t-1,所以上式的造林費用僅保留C。
In the above scenario, because the first tranche of afforestation costs is already invested and exists in the form of wood, after the second phase, the cost of afforestation is calculated as R/(1+P)t-1 in the clean-up formula, so that only C is retained. 在擇伐作業中,因為間伐與主伐同時進行,人促碭山成本與主伐的收入幾乎是同一時刻發生的,所以A1=Y1-C。
In the process of logging, because the logging is taking place at the same time as , the cost per person is almost at the same time as the income from the main logging, so A1=Y1-C. 以上各式計算的結果均為公益林林地和林木資源資產的綜合價值,如要求得單獨的林地資產或林木資源資產,則可採用比例繫數法和剩餘價值法。
The results of the above calculations are the combined value of public forest land and forest resources, and if a separate forest land or forest resource is required, a proportional method and residual value method can be used. 比例繫數法即按當地習慣的林木收入與地租的分成比例並參照被評估林地的立地質量和地利等級確定其比例繫數,並按該比例分出林木資源資產價格和林地資產價格。
The proportional method is to determine the proportion of forest land in proportion to the share of forest revenues and land leases that is traditionally used in the area, and to determine the proportion of forest land in terms of the size of the land and its profits, and to allocate the forest resource and forest land property prices in proportion to that proportion. 剩餘價值法也是將收益現值扣除現有林木的價值剩餘項為林地價值。
The residual value method also reduces the present value of the forest by the present value of the forest. (二)收穫預測法
(ii) Prediction method 式中:Ci—年生產經營成本；Bi—年防護效益補償費用；n—林分年齡；u—聚伐年齡；P—年利率。
In stage: >C 公益林撫育主要是通過調整林分和樹種結構，改善林木生長環境，從而促進上層木、下層木和雜灌草等不同層次植被的生長髮育，形成多樹種、多層次、異林齡的較複雜的森林群落結構。公益林撫育能有效提高林分的質量和穩定性，使森林生態系統的整體功能更加強大，充分發揮森林涵養水源、保持水土、防風固沙和維持生物多樣性等生態效能。
Public-interest forest breeding, which is effective in improving the quality and stability of forest formations, enhances the overall functioning of forest ecosystems by promoting the growth of different layers of vegetation, such as upper wood, lower wood, and weeds, to form more complex forest formations of many species, layers, and age. 公益林撫育主要包括防護林的撫育和特用林的撫育。在防護林中，幼齡林郁閉度0．9以上、中齡林郁閉度0．8以上；或遭受病蟲害、火災及風折等自然災害且受害木株數達10％以上的林分，可列為撫育林分。在特用林中，林分密度大、競爭激烈、分化明顯，影響人們審美和休閑游憩需求的林分；或林木生長髮育已不符合特定主導功能的林分；或遭受病蟲害、火災及風折等自然災害且受害木株數達5％以上的林分，可列為撫育林分。
In the sheltered forest, the forest has a high density, competition, differentiation, and influence over the needs of the people for beauty and recreation; or the wood has long hair breeding that does not meet certain guiding functions; or the forest has been affected by natural disasters such as disease, fire and windfalls and has suffered more than 10% of the damage caused by natural disasters and has suffered more than 5% of the damage caused by forest strains. 需要註意的是，按照《生態公益林建設導則》中界定的特殊保護地區的公益林，以及其他國家明令禁止人為活動的公益林，應禁止開展撫育活動。
在確定的公益林撫育林分中，根據林分功能和狀況，劃分優良木、有益木、伐除木，合理確定撫育方式方法，砍去伐除木。其撫育方法主要有透光伐、生態疏伐、衛生伐、景觀疏伐等。
In a defined range of public-interest forests, good wood, good wood, good wood, wood-cutting, reasonable determination of how to raise, wood-cutting, etc., depending on the function and state of the forest, is used mainly in the form of lumbering, deforesting, sanitary, landscape-scathing, etc. 1.透光伐
1. Logging 透光伐一般在幼齡林內進行，方法與商品林基本相同，主要遵循“間密留勻、去劣存優”的八字原則。但同時還可通過“栽針補(保)闊”的方法，調整林分結構，促進形成針闊混交或闊闊混交林分，以增加物種多樣性和生態功能。
Logging usually takes place in young forests, largely in the same way as commercial forests, following the eight-word principle of “hidden storage, poor living.” At the same time, however, it is possible to adjust the structure of the forest by “contributions” to facilitate the formation of large-scale or mixed forest divisions in order to increase diversity and physiology. 2.生態疏伐
2. Biological alienation 生態疏伐一般是在中齡林內進行，但與商品林生長伐中目標樹極其明確的情況不同，公益林的生態疏伐要先將彼此有密切聯繫的林木劃分為若幹植生組(樹群)。具體方法是，按照有利於林冠形成梯級郁閉和復層結構、主林層和次林層立木都能受光的要求，在每組內將林木分為優良木、有益木和伐除木，保留優良木、有益木和適量的灌木、藤蔓、草本植物。
The target tree A0%E6%E0%87%E0%E0%91 "title = "target tree"" is very different from the target tree 疏伐作業後，為了調整林分的樹種結構和層次結構，可根據情況適當補植，這樣有利於促進復層、異齡混交林的形成。
As a result of the deforestment, and in order to adjust the tree structure and layer structure of the forest, it is appropriate to supplement it, as the case may be, in order to facilitate the formation of an extended, heterogeneous forest. 3.衛生伐
3. Health logging 衛生伐除一般在遭受病蟲害、風折、風倒、冰凍、雪壓、森林火災等災害和坡度大於25。的林分中進行，主要是為了清除生態功能降低的被害木。
Health logging is generally carried out in forest fire , and has a greater degree of hazard and slope than 25. 衛生伐作業後，在林隙較多、較大的林分中應及時、適當地補植目的樹種。
As a result of this practice, trees should be grown in a timely and appropriate manner in the larger forest fractions of the forest. 4.景觀疏伐
4. Viewing 景觀疏伐一般在風景林中進行。風景林是為美化環境、滿足人們的生態需求而營造的，因此要按森林美學的原理進行景觀疏伐，改造或塑造新的景觀，創造出美麗多姿自然景觀，從而提高旅游和觀賞價值。
人們主要按照森林美學的原理進行景觀疏伐，並無具體要求，而透光伐、生態疏伐和衛生伐則有一定的科學要求。要求作業後，林分郁閉度不得低於0．6，且伐後林分平均胸徑不得低於伐前林分的平均胸徑；對於容易引起風倒的林分或因撫育強度大影響林木正常生長的，每次撫育間伐後郁閉度不得降低0．2。至於撫育初始期、間隔期和撫育強度，可根據實際情況自行確定。
There are no specific requirements for observational logging, mainly based on the principles of forest aesthetics, and there are certain scientific requirements for luminous, degenerative, and sanitary logging. After a job is required, the forest shall not be as low as 0.6 and the average breast path of the forest shall not be lower than the average breast path of the pre-harvest forest; for forest species that are prone to windfalls or that have a significant impact on the normal growth of forest trees due to their stress, it shall not be reduced by 0.2 per child-raising period. As for the initial period of rearing, the interval and the intensity of rearing, it may be determined on the basis of the actual circumstances. 1.公益林需求的理論分析
. Theoretical analysis of the demand for public forest 弗里德曼給公共物品所下的定義是：“我主張將它定義成這樣一種物品，它一旦生產出來，生產者就無法決定誰來得到它。”由於公益林所發揮的生態效益是一種無形效用，不能儲藏和移動，生產者難以對其做出控制，於是，無法迫使受益者償付了補償費後才享用生態效用，因此，公益林屬於公共物品。公共物品分為純粹公共物品和非純公共物品，純粹公共物品具有非競爭性和非排他性，例如跨省防護林體系屬於純公共物品。非純公共物品不完全滿足兩個特性，有些非純公共物品具有排他性，隨著消費者的增加可能出現擁擠現象，從而具有某種程度的競爭性，例如森林公園屬於非純公共物品。絕大部分公益林不具有排他性，公益林生態效益交易市場不存在，公眾的意願和需求無法通過市場機制顯示出來，公益林的需求曲線不可能通過市場分析建立，公益林的需求價格也就不能通過市場獲得。
西方國家許多學者以效用價值論為基礎，廣泛使用意願調查法（Contingent Method）評價生態效益，並且得到一些西方國家官方和公眾的認可。薩繆爾森在公共物品局部均衡模型中所提出的“虛擬需求曲線”是個人對公共物品的評價，他認為“虛擬需求曲線”是政府通過調查和詢問得到的。庇古認為個人對公共物品的需求是個人對公共物品消費邊際效用的評價。公益林生態效益也可以採用意願調查法進行評價。人們對公益林的需求就是人們對公益林生態效益的評價，公益林生態效益的需求價格可以通過對其評價來確定，從而為公益林生態效益的市場交易和公益林生態效益補償費的確定奠定基礎。
Many scholars in Western countries based their usefulness on , using widely 2.公益林需求的影響因素分析
2. Analysis of the factors influencing the demand for public goods ①收入
Income 1 在任何給定價格水平下，收入會影響人們對絕大多數商品的購買量。正常品的需求量會隨著收入的增加而上升。公益林屬於正常品，隨著人們收入水平的提高，對公益林的需求也會增加。根據馬斯洛需要層次理論，物質需要要求在先，精神需要要求在後，即隨著人們收入提高，在物質需要得到滿足之後，人們會追求精神需要。中國城鄉居民溫飽問題已解決，一部分人已達到小康生活水平，這部分人已開始嚮往美好的生活環境。中國目前經濟發展速度較快，人們的收入增長速度較快，對公益林的需求也不斷增長，2003 年全國森林公園旅游人數首次突破1 億人次，2006 年達到2.13 億人次，2007 年達到2.47 億人次，2008年達到2.74億人次，就是例證。
According to Maslo's hierarchy is needed , material needs to be asked to go ahead, spiritually demand higher incomes after the need of the physical needs of people to meet their needs after their physical needs. ②人口數量
Number of population 2 中國人口數量多，對生態環境壓力大，對公益林的需求也多，而且中國人口數量還在不斷增多，對公益林的需求也增加。
China has a large population, a high stress on the living environment, a high demand for public forest, a growing population and a growing demand for public forest. ③生態環境狀況
Three-year-olds state of the environment. 生態環境狀況差的地區，對增加公益林更加迫切，以便儘快改善生態環境。
Areas with poor environmental conditions are all the more urgent to increase the number of public-interest forests in order to improve the living environment as soon as possible. ④其它
4 Other 在中國，公益林的需求呈上升趨勢，但是需求者實際支付意願不強，主要原因在於：需求者認為公益林屬於公共物品，政府促進需求者付費政策不健全，存在免費搭便車現象和有效需求不足。
In China, the demand for public forest is on the rise, but demanders are less willing to pay, mainly because demanders consider public forest to be a public good, government-driven demanders' fee policies are inadequate, and there are free fees and . 公益林具有明顯的外部經濟性，公益林所發揮的生態效益，目前社會有關各方從中受益，而且絕大部分是無償受益，這就使公益林供給的私人邊際收益小於社會邊際收益。如果沒有彌補兩者差異，在市場經濟條件下，不可能使公益林達到最佳的供給水平。
Public forest has a clear external economy, and the benefits of public forest are now largely and largely unprofitable for all concerned in society, making public forest available to . 1.公益林供給的理論分析
. Theoretical analysis of the provision of public forest 在競爭市場上，生產者通過出售私人物品，取得收益，從而激勵生產者提供該物品。但是，公益林被禁止採伐，公益林經營者成本無法回收。在市場經濟條件下，公益林供給的激勵機制不可能自動形成，必須靠政府驅動。
At , producers sell private goods to generate the proceeds and encourage the producers to make the goods. However, public goods are banned from harvesting and public goods operators cannot recover their costs. 加勒特哈丁（Garrett Hadin）1968 年在《科學》雜誌上發表了論文《公地的悲劇》，說明瞭在競爭的環境中，市場機制無法保障公共物品的最優供給。庇古認為具有正外部性的物品要給予補貼。科斯認為市場機制也能解決公共物品的供給問題，即如果產權是明晰的，同時交易費用為零，那麼無論產權最初如何界定，都可以通過市場機制實現公共物品的最優配置。大部分公益林所發揮的生態效益，許多公眾都從中受益，如果要與他們談判，並向他們收取生態效益補償費，交易費用將是巨大的，因此不能滿足科斯定理條件，政府干預是必要的。當然，政府干預政策若制定和運用不好，也可能出現政府失靈。對於涉及當事人較少的少部分公益林，如果交易費用較小，可以由政府界定產權，通過當事人交易解決外部性問題。
writes about the tragedy in the public domain, stating that the market system cannot guarantee the best supply of public goods in a competing environment. believes that the market system can also solve the problem of the supply of public goods. > 2.公益林供給的影響因素分析
2. Analysis of the factors influencing the supply of public goods ①生產成本
在商品自身價格不變的條件下，生產成本上升會減少利潤，生產者可能會減少產量，導致商品的供給量減少。在其它條件不變的情況下，公益林造林成本提高，會減少公益林的供給。在中國，造林成本主要是人工成本，近兩年中國農村人工成本上升幅度較大，這對公益林供給產生不利影響。
In China, the cost of afforestation is mainly , which has had a negative impact on public goods supply. ②機會成本
2補貼等政策調節某些產品的生產，影響商品的供給。政府增加對公益林所有者的補貼，提供各種優惠或扶持政策，將會激勵他們保護和建設公益林。
Tax revenue or supplements such as that regulate the production of certain products and affect the supply of commodities. Governments increase their subsidies to public forest owners by providing various preferential or supportive policies that will inspire them to protect and build public forest. ④價格
供給量和價格成正比。公益林的生態效益補償費（供給價格）越高，農民將更加願意保護公益林。一般情況下，只有當供給價格高於成本時，才有單位或個人願意提供公益林。目前中國公益林的生態效益補償費很低，大部分低於林地租金，不能彌補成本，導致公益林供給不足。
and the price is positive. The higher the cost (price) of the public good forest, the more the farmer will be willing to protect the public good forest. In general, only is not able to provide a large part of the public good for the public good < ⑤金融機構貸款
5 Financial Institutions Loans 金融機構貸款影響公益林保護和建設的資金籌集，從而影響公益林的供給量。目前中國林農很難獲得造林貸款，獲得公益林建設貸款更難，而且已發放的貸款中絕大部分都是短期貸款，與公益林生長周期長不相適應。
has an impact on the availability of public forest. It is now difficult for Chinese forest farmers to obtain afforestation loans, it is more difficult for Chinese foresters to obtain loans for public forest construction, and most of the loans that have been released are that are not suitable for the long-term cycle of public forest. ⑥自然環境
林木生長受自然環境影響較大，自然環境好的地方，有利於公益林生長，公益林的供給會更多。中國東南沿海地區自然環境較好，公益林保護和建設成效較快。
The trees are more affected by the natural environment, where the natural environment is more favourable than the public good, and where the public good is more available. China’s south-east coastal zone is better off, and the conservation and construction of the public good is more effective. 由於公益林的公共物品屬性、生態產權不明晰、外部經濟性以及市場交易費用一般較高，導致市場失靈。因此，需要政府干預。對於不同類別的公益林，要採取不同的措施：對於具有排他性的公益林，可以進行收費，政府制定合理的收費標準，並且規定將其中一定比例用於補償公益林所有者；對於受益對象明確且不多的水庫防護林、水源涵養林、農田防護林等，政府用法規形式強制受益者支付生態效益補償費給所有者；對於受益對象眾多或不明確的公益林，由各級政府分擔公益林生態效益補償費。對於滿足科斯定理條件的，政府建立市場交易平臺和制訂交易規則，促進公益林生態效益的市場交易。政府要從需求和供給兩方面採取措施，緩解中國公益林的供求矛盾。
Public goods belonging to the public forest, unclear property rights, external economics and are generally high, leading to 森林生態效益補償的權利”，至於應該向誰獲得、怎樣獲得、獲得多少？沒有具體說明，需求者“免費搭車”很順利。所以，政府必須進行制度創新，解決“免費搭車”問題，建立公益林需求者付費機制。
Article XV of the Law on the Application of Forest Law in the People's Republic of China provides that: “A proprietors of anti-forestry and special forest use shall have the right to should have access to, how, and how much? 政府必須明確規定公益林生態效益的受益者（需求者），政府必須對一些相對比較容易確定的受益者用法規形式界定，比如公益林水源涵養效益的受益者應該是下游的用水單位和個人，防止沙土流失效益的受益者是下游的航運部門和水庫經營管理單位，農田防護林的受益者是農田所有者或經營者，森林景觀效益的受益者是旅游部門，等等。
The Government must clearly define the beneficiaries (requirers) of the public good forest ecosystem benefits, and the Government must define by law a number of relatively easy-to-identify beneficiaries, such as those who benefit from the water content of the public good forest, who should be downstream water units and individuals, those who benefit from the benefits of protection against sand erosion, who benefit from downstream air transport and reservoir management units, those who benefit from agricultural protected forests, those who own or own agricultural land, and those who benefit from forest landscape benefits, such as the tourism sector. 在國際上，《京都議定書》及其清潔發展機制（CDM）已經促進了森林碳匯需求者的出現。政府要制定相關規則，為交易雙方搭建市場交易平臺，降低交易成本。例如，美國的“濕地銀行”是濕地交易平臺。中國可以考慮成立“綠色銀行”，作為公益林生態效益的交易平臺；中國也可以通過設立碳匯交易中心和制定交易制度，為森林碳匯交易奠定基礎。假如政府出台相關法規，並且規定企業二氧化碳的排放標準，那麼超過排放標準的二氧化碳排放者就面臨選擇:他們可以通過減少自身的排放量達到排放標準；或者付款給其他企業獲得排放權，讓其他企業減少排放量；或者通過森林吸收等量二氧化碳，否則企業就會受到處罰，甚至被強行關閉。如果通過森林吸收等量二氧化碳的成本最低，那麼該企業就會選擇向公益林供給者購買碳排放權。如果上游造林凈化水質成本低於企業現行水質處理成本，即森林生態系統的水文服務成本比自來水廠的水凈化成本更低，自來水廠就會成為需求者，通過政府制度創新，可以促進自來水廠付款給供給者。這為中國公益林的碳匯和水文服務等需求者付費機制的產生奠定了基礎。
Internationally, the Kyoto Protocol and its Clean Development Mechanism have promoted the presence of forest carbon demanders. The government will set relevant rules for trading 如果需求者較多，要根據受益原則共同分攤公益林生態效益補償費。19 世紀末，堅持“受益原則”的經濟學家認為，應該按照人們從公共物品中受益量多少對他們進行徵稅或收費。例如，對於公益林水文服務，可以按照需求者用水量（噸）作為分攤補償費的標準。對於難以計量的公益林生態效益，可以借鑒林達爾均衡和克拉克稅原理，設計公益林生態效益補償費的分攤機制。開始從19世紀80年代，一些經濟學家開始利用邊際效用概念和效用價值論研究公共物品及其融資問題，對18 世紀本瑟姆、洛克和羅塞奧等堅持的“受益原則”進行拓展。後來，林達爾（Lindahl，1919）根據受益原則分攤公共物品的成本。他認為，公共物品局部均衡帕累托最優的特征是：人們對既定公共物品的融資貢獻應該等於他們從該公共物品中所得到的邊際效用，或者人們所負擔的公共物品成本的相對份額（稅收或收費）應該等於他們從公共物品獲得的邊際效用。在林達爾均衡中，不是公共物品在所有消費者之間進行分配，而是公共物品的總成本在消費者之間進行分攤，儘量使每個消費者面臨的價格和該消費者對公共物品的真實評價（採用意願調查法進行評價）相一致，這樣使每個消費者所願意支付的價格總和正好等於公共物品的總成本。因此，林達爾均衡的解就是在利潤為零的約束條件下，按照每個消費者對公共物品的真實評價，分別收取不同的價格。消費者的評價高，收取的費用就高，評價低，收取的費用就低。評價的高低受收入和偏好等因素影響。從理論上看，林達爾均衡是一個比較理想的方案，但是個人的價格只取決於他自己對公共物品的私人評價，就有一個激勵或動力問題，怎樣才能保證每個消費者誠實地報出自己對公共物品的評價呢？林達爾沒有解決這個問題。克拉克為瞭解決這個問題提出了一種投票機制，誰沒有真實地投票，他將不得不另外支付一項額外的稅收，這項額外稅稱為克拉克稅。克拉克稅的主要特征是每個投票人真實投票總比不真實投票合算，它激勵人們表露他們的真實偏好。在投票時，他們意識到可能會承擔克拉克稅，就不敢撒謊。設計克拉克稅的目的不是為了收取公共物品建設所需的費用，而只是為了讓人們顯示他們真實的偏好。
At the end of the century, , 2.供給激勵策略
2. Supply incentive strategy 政府要充分運用預算安排和政策形成經濟刺激，對公益林所有者進行補償，激勵公益林供給。政府承擔一定比例的公益林造林成本，為營造公益林提供長期無息的政策性貸款；對林權所有者利用公益林發展森林生態旅游業、林下種植和養殖業等，給予無息或貼息政策性貸款，減免稅收。
Governments need to fully use their budget arrangements and policies to generate economic incentives to compensate the owners of public interest forests and encourage the provision of public interest forests. Governments bear a percentage of the cost of public interest forests and provide long-term, interest-free policy loans for the construction of public interest forests; provide interest-free or interest-bearing policy loans to forest owners for the development of forest-based tourism, forest-planting and livestock industries using public interest forests, etc. . 要建立公益林的分類補償標準。對於集體、個人等非國有的公益林，要根據公益林的成本、質量、需求程度、重要性程度和經濟損失等測算公益林的補償標準；對於國有公益林，由於所有權歸全國人民，可以把公益林成本作為補償標準。
For non-national public interest forests, such as collectives, individuals, based on the cost of public interest forests, quality, level of demand, importance and economic loss; for a national public interest forest, based on the cost of public interest forests, all rights belong to the people throughout the country. 在生態公益林區域內，根據生態區位的脆弱性和重要性將公益林劃分為三個保護等級:一級保護（嚴格保護），二級保護（重點保護）和三級保護（一般保護）。允許對重點保護公益林進行必要的撫育性、更新性活動；允許對一般保護的公益林進行限制性利用，在保護的前提下，進行合理的撫育間伐、更新伐或擇伐，以增加公益林供給者的收益，激勵公益林供給。
Within the zone, public interest forests are classified into three levels of protection according to their vulnerability and importance: first-level protection (strict protection), second-level protection (emphasis protection) and third-level protection (general protection). 大部分現有公益林屬於國家和集體所有，並且分佈在廣闊的林地上，容易被盜伐或違規採伐；公益林容易受自然災害影響，如火災、病蟲害、凍害和雪災等。所以，需要加大資金投入，充分調動林農保護公益林的積極性，加強公益林存量保護，建立保護主體落實、監管到位、責權利相統一的公益林保護機制，以保障公益林供給。應該明確村委會的管理主體責任，發揮村委會檢查監督作用。村委會與選聘的護林監管員簽訂監管責任書，這既有利於村委會直接管理護林監管員，也便於護林監管員及時向村委會彙報情況，使管護問題得到及時處理。鄉鎮林業工作站是對林業生產經營實施組織管理的最基層機構，是監管公益林的前哨，應該指導和監督村委會管好公益林。林業站將責任落實到監管人員，實行包片責任制，負責公益林管護與建設的規劃、指導、服務和護林監管員業務培訓及成效考核。
Most of the existing public interest forests belong to the state and collectivities, and are divided into broad forest areas that are vulnerable to appropriation or illegal logging. It should be clear that village councils are responsible for managing them, and that village councils are responsible for overseeing natural disasters, such as fire, bugs, freezes, and snow disasters. The village councils and elected rangers have signed regulatory instruments that directly regulate forest managers, as well as caretakers and village councils, which are responsible for the management of public goods, the management of public goods and services, and the management of public goods and services, which are responsible for the management of the forest industry and the management of the forest, the management of the forest and the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest, the management of the forest and the management of the forest, the management of the public goods and services, and the management of the plant and the management of the forest and the management of the forest.
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